Persia, 12th century

Persia, meaning modern day Iran, was part of the larger Seljuk Empire, stretching from modern day Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and Pakistan in the east to the Mediterranean Sea in the west. Its greatest philosopher was Omar Khayyam.

Omar Khayyam (عمر خیّام‎) (May 18, 1048 until December 4, 1131) was born in Nishapur, in the far northeast. Although the family name Khayyam meant ‘tent maker,’ his father was a wealthy doctor. Omar was a child prodigy who went on to become a renown mathematician, astronomer, and poet.

The Seljuq empire of the 11th and 12th centuries included the modern day countries of Turkey, Israel, Syria, Iraq, Armenia, Georgia, Afghanistan and Iran, loosely controlling the land up to the border of China.

Alp Arslan (meaning “Heroic Lion,” 1029 – 1072) was the second sultan of the Seljuk Empire. He was succeeded by his son Malik-Shah (“king” in Arabic and Persian, 1072 – 1092). Both father and son were ably advised by the vizier Nizam al-Mulk.

The Seljuq Empire reached its zenith during the rule of these two kings. Commerce and learning flourished. Encouraged by Nizam al-Mulk, Omar Khayyam oversaw the construction of an observatory in Isfahan in order to observe the heavenly bodies and establish a new calendar.

Omar Khayyam continued to live for almost 40 years after the deaths of the sultan Malik-Shah and his vizier Nizam al-Mulik. During this time the Seljuq Empire fell into chaos. Rivals waged war and regional governors declared their independence, carving up the once mighty empire. In the midst of chaos, the First Crusade proceeded to retake the Jerusalem and the Holy Land.

In the east, the Mongols were soon ready to stir.

For more, read The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000-1217), C. E. Bosworth, 1968, which includes numerous citations to original Persian texts.